HIGHLAND TOWERS TRAGEDY REVISITED

Credit : Astro Awani

Disclaimer

This article is a technical synthesis prepared for informational and educational purposes only. All explanations, timelines, interpretations, and engineering assessments in this document are derived from open and publicly accessible sources, including news reports, academic papers, task‑force summaries, legal documents, and published case studies.

This article does not represent, quote, or replace any official government report, forensic investigation report, or authoritative findings issued by relevant Malaysian agencies, professional bodies, or courts.

The analysis is prepared from a civil, structural, and geotechnical engineering perspective, with supplementary notes on regulatory and administrative processes, strictly for general understanding. It may simplify or generalize certain technical aspects and should not be used as a substitute for professional engineering judgement, legal advice, or regulatory compliance.

While every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, errors or omissions may exist, and interpretations may differ from official positions. Any use of any contents derived from this article is at the reader’s own discretion and responsibility.

Block 1 of the Highland Towers condominium (Ulu Klang, near Bukit Antarabangsa) collapsed on 11 December 1993 after a large, retrogressive landslide behind the building pushed the foundations and destroyed a retaining structure, the slide was the product of hillside clearance/over-development, failed drainage/diversion works and inadequate slope design/maintenance. 48 people died

1) Short timeline/Project Background

Highland Towers was built in phases in the 1970s–early 1980s at the foot of a steep, terraced hill in Taman Hillview / Ulu Klang. Block 1 (the southern block) is the one that collapsed.

In the early 1990s the Bukit Antarabangsa hilltop behind Highland Towers was developed (new roads, houses and earthworks). That development involved extensive cutting, vegetation removal and installation of diversion/drainage works (the “East Stream” diversion pipe is repeatedly mentioned in accounts). Heavy/repeated rain in December 1993 then triggered progressive slope failure. 

On 11 Dec 1993 the down-slope movement and failure of retaining works/earth mass undermined the piled foundations/rail-pile system behind Block 1; the block moved, fractured and collapsed. Rescue recovered 2 survivors and 48 fatalities.

2) Possible Engineering and Technical Root Causes

Several post-incident theories (later refuted) theorized that:

wastewater and greywater did not discharge properly into designated drains, leading to seepage and percolation into the subsurface soils behind Block 1. Over time, this may have softened the foundation soils, increased moisture content, reduced effective stress, and compromised pile stability. While not the primary confirmed trigger, personally I feel that this factor despite a good theory should be taken into account as a plausible contributing mechanism that exacerbated overall ground saturation and instability.

The following causes; however; are the commonly agreed, evidence-based causes cited by geotechnical studies and task-force reviews:

• Slope destabilisation from hilltop development and vegetation removal - Clearing and terracing reduced root strength, changed surface runoff and exposed slopes to erosion during heavy rain,

• Inadequate drainage and failed diversion pipe(s) - Diversion/pipe systems carrying the east creek and surface runoff either were under-designed, poorly installed or ruptured; water ingress and seepage into the slope greatly reduced soil shear strength and caused progressive erosion. Accounts point to burst diversion pipes and uncontrolled flow of silt, debris and water down the slope,

• Failure of retaining works / shallow support systems - Retaining walls and “raker/rail” piles used behind the car-park/retaining zones were unable to resist the lateral mass of saturated soil. Some authors point to inadequate design for lateral soil loads and progressive undermining of foundations,

• Inadequate site investigation and design assumptions - Subsequent case studies say geotechnical investigations, soil testing and slope stability analysis were insufficient or not conservative enough for the hillside conditions, thus, designs did not properly account for heavy rain pore pressure buildup and retrogressive failure mechanisms,

• Progressive (retrogressive) landslide mechanism - Once a lower portion failed (retaining wall/toe), the failure propagated upslope, moving very large volumes of saturated soil/mud that pushed on foundations (estimates in popular accounts describe huge volumes) and caused structural collapse. 

Put simply: water + unstable cut slope + insufficient drainage + inadequate retaining/foundation design = a retrogressive landslide that overloaded and undermined building foundations.

AI Generated Image - Simple Schematic - Not to Scale

3) Possible Institutional, Procedural failures 

During that time, the technical failures occurred in an environment of regulatory weakness, poor coordination and weak enforcement :

• Approvals without adequate hillside safeguards - Reviews after the event emphasised that state and local approvals allowed hillside development without consistent application of proper safeguards, guidelines or independent verification. The Malaysian Bar Task Force and subsequent studies list lack of compliance checks, inadequate planning procedures and approvals granted without sufficient technical oversight,

• Poor monitoring and maintenance - Drains, diversion pipes and retaining facilities require ongoing inspection and maintenance; the task force cites poor maintenance of drains/retaining walls and failure to act on residents’ complaints or visible signs,

• Fragmented responsibilities and weak verification of competence - The Task Force highlighted poor communication among developers, consultants, local authorities and state agencies and lack of independent verification of safety aspects for hillside works,

• Enforcement limits and legal immunity issues - In subsequent litigation the Ampang Jaya Municipal Council (MPAJ) was at first held to have some pre-collapse liability in lower courts, but the Federal Court later ruled (2006) that the local council was immune under provisions of the Street, Drainage and Building Act (SDBA) for “approval and inspection” functions, a significant legal outcome that limited civil claims against the local authority. That judgment shaped the legal aftermath and discussion about local authority duties. 

4) Authorities and Parties Involved

• Local authority (MPAJ at the time) : issues site approvals, inspects stormwater/drainage and enforces building codes. Investigations and the Task Force later criticised approval practice and monitoring but in litigation MPAJ successfully invoked limited immunity for its regulatory functions,

• Jabatan Kerja Raya (PWD) : involved in slope/road infrastructure and (later) commissioned government inquiries into Bukit Antarabangsa landslides. The Task Force referenced a federal JKR investigation whose full public release was an issue at the time,

• Landowners, developers, consulting engineers : the main parties responsible for safe design, correct earthworks, proper drainage and supervision. Civil suits were pursued against developers, engineers and other private parties. The technical reviews criticise competence and execution at the development level,

• Department of Environment (DOE) and Department of Occupational Safety & Health (DOSH)? : At the time, DOE is normally concerned with environmental impact, erosion control and consent conditions while DOSH at the time focuses on workplace safety (less central to a post-occupancy landslide, but relevant for construction phase safety). Public records and the Task Force emphasis focus mainly on planning, JKR and local council responsibilities (rather than DOSH actions in the disaster’s immediate technical causes, most published technical reviews do not place DOSH at the centre of the collapse causes as the original OSHA 93 was still at its' infancy stage (where the author was involved in the (unofficial) translation of the Parliament handsard in the consultancy capacity serving an Australia-Malaysia JV Safety Consultant)

5) Aftermath

Lawsuits followed - banks and some defendants settled with homeowners. The Federal Court ruling on MPAJ’s immunity (2006) was a landmark - it limited claims against local authorities for pre-collapse regulatory actions, which in turn shaped how liability is apportionable in Malaysia. 

The tragedy triggered repeated public and professional calls for better hillside development guidelines, stricter geotechnical standards, improved drainage and monitoring and clearer institutional responsibilities, many of which were reflected in later regulations, guidelines and the Task Force recommendations. 

6) Lessons Learned 

Practical recommendations that come from the literature and task-force reviews:

• Require competent, independent geotechnical investigation and slope stability analysis for all hillside works; design conservatively for worst-case rainfall/pore pressure,

• Do not allow unchecked top-cutting/overdevelopment without robust retaining systems, positive drainage and a mandatory maintenance plan,

• Insist on durable, inspected drainage/diversion works (pipes, gutters, culverts), surface runoff must not be allowed to concentrate onto or into slopes,

• Improve inter-agency coordination (local councils, JKR/DID, DOE - now known as OSC) and make roles/responsibilities and enforcement clear. 

• Implement slope monitoring, early-warning (movement, pore pressure) and community reporting channels so warning signs trigger action,

7) Short caveats about sources and remaining uncertainties

Multiple technical reviews and academic case studies (UM/UMP theses, research papers) analyze the geotechnical mechanisms; the Malaysian Bar Task Force collated legal and regulatory problems. Some government inquiry reports were not widely released at the time, and some fine technical details (exact pipe locations, as-built details of the retaining pile system) are reconstructed from expert testimony and post-event studies rather than a single public forensic report. 

8)  Other Tragedies

It's important to mention that there have been other incidents at the surroundings after the Highland Towers tragedy :

a) Taman Hillview landslide (20 Nov 2002) : A slope failure in Taman Hillview destroyed a bungalow and killed 8 people. Investigations indicated re-activation of an old landslide/filled zone.

Engineering summary: deep-seated re-activation of an earlier slide mass and unstable fills; local drains and slope materials were friable and became saturated after heavy rainfall/runoff concentration. The incident occurred only a few hundred metres from the Highland Towers site, showing persistent area vulnerability. 

b) Bukit Antarabangsa/Taman Bukit Mewah landslide (6 Dec 2008) : A large landslide destroyed multiple houses and killed several people (reports vary: 4–5 fatalities reported in multiple sources). The failure affected a wide swathe of slope (tens to a hundred metres scale).

Engineering summary: classified by investigators as a deep-seated landslide with a large crown width and significant depth; mechanisms included prolonged/intense rainfall, slope cutting/filling and poor retaining/foundation for slope toes. The failure measurements recorded (crest width, length, depth) are consistent with a deep, translational/rotational mass movement rather than a small local slip.

c) Numerous smaller but significant slides and reactivations (1993–2010s) : Multiple smaller incidents, slope reactivations and failures have been recorded across Ulu Klang/Bukit Antarabangsa (research reports and the Malaysian Bar Task Force catalogue dozens of events and many remediation works). Several caused property loss and some caused fatalities over the years. 

Engineering summary: many were rainfall-triggered, involved cut/fill zones or old landslide scars, and were aggravated by obstructed or misdirected drainage, poor retaining-wall construction (rubble or inadequately anchored walls), or the presence of loose fill materials. Research reviews count multiple major incidents in the area across two decades and emphasise recurring weaknesses in hillside approvals and maintenance. 

9) Recurring Technical Themes (why these keep happening)

• Rainfall + infiltration/pore pressure: Many failures were rainfall-triggered; prolonged or intense rain increases pore water pressure, reducing effective stress and shear strength of residual or fill soils. This is the proximate trigger in most cases,

• Human modification of slopes: Hill cutting, terracing, filling of gullies and vegetation removal changed the hills’ natural equilibrium and often created vulnerable geometry (steep free faces, overloaded benches),

• Inadequate or failed drainage/diversion works: Under-designed, clogged, ruptured or poorly maintained surface and subsurface drainage concentrated flow or allowed seepage into slopes, a common aggravating factor,

• Use of weak fills and poor retaining practice: Poorly compacted fill, rubble walls and non-engineered toe supports were repeatedly implicated. Deep seated failures often involve weak layers or interfaces beneath fills,

• Insufficient geotechnical investigation and oversight: Repeated studies call out limited site investigations, complacent assumptions about soil strength and lack of independent peer review for high-risk hillside works. 

9) Institutional/Regulatory Pattern

After each major failure there were reviews, task-forces and recommendations but published audits (and later events) suggest incomplete implementation, fragmented agency responsibilities and enforcement gaps (per Malaysian Bar Task Force and academic reviews).

10) Quick engineering implications/actions takes

• Treat the whole Bukit Antarabangsa/Taman Hillview area as high-risk: require full geotechnical reinvestigations and monitoring for any new works,

• Inspect and rehabilitate all drainage/diversion conduits: ensure positive discharge away from slopes,

• Replace or underpin weak retaining systems and replace loose fill with engineered solutions (anchors, deep piles, drained retaining systems),

• Enforce independent peer review, maintenance bonds and continuous monitoring (piezometers, inclinometers, rainfall thresholds & alarm/evacuation triggers). 

THE COST OF PROGRESS - DEVELOPMENT VS ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY IN MALAYSIA

Every nation dreams of progress. But progress without balance comes at a price and Malaysia is beginning to feel the cost - floods, recurring slope failures, and severe erosion events are not acts of nature alone, they are the echoes of our own choices. As the nation accelerates its infrastructure and urban expansion, environmental sustainability too often becomes a footnote, rather than a foundation.

1) When Development Turns Disruptive

Hill-cutting for highways, clearing forests for housing, and altering natural waterways for new industrial zones do have consequences even how good the risk assessment is. The soil no longer holds, the rivers overflow, and the cost of repairing damage exceeds what was saved in the first place.

Each disaster is a reminder - we are building faster than we are thinking.

2) ESG: Beyond a Corporate Buzzword

Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) principles are not just for listed companies, they are the new language of accountability for every contractor, developer, and policymaker.

Projects that ignore ESG risk may potentially becoming liabilities - financially, socially, and politically. Responsible contracting must now mean assessing environmental impact, enforcing erosion control, and ensuring compliance is not just “paperwork,” but practice.

3) Responsible Contracting and Leadership

Governments and developers must demand accountability throughout the project chain. It’s not enough to meet deadlines or reduce costs, sustainability should be treated as a performance metric.

Tender evaluations should include environmental stewardship. Site supervision must prioritize ecological safety alongside technical compliance.

4) We Need Real Sustainable Progress

Malaysia doesn’t need to slow down, it needs to WISE up.

True progress doesn’t destroy what sustains us, it preserves it for the next generation. Every hill, river, and forest has value far beyond its immediate commercial worth.

If we continue to equate “development” with “deforestation,” we are not progressing, we are merely shifting the cost from our balance sheets to our children’s future.

The Algorithm Is a Strategy not Your Enemy (Overview by Nik Zafri)

In the fast-paced world of digital marketing, algorithms don’t just decide who sees your content - they reflect how well you understand your audience. Every scroll, click, and linger tells a story.

In this new age, the word “algorithm” often sparks mixed emotions, fascination, frustration, and sometimes fear. Yet, behind every algorithm lies a simple truth - it’s not out to defeat us, but to understand us. Every post, click, and comment forms part of an intelligent feedback loop that rewards consistency, authenticity, and engagement.

For new-generation marketers, this means success isn’t about chasing trends or hacking visibility it’s about mastering the language of algorithms. When you treat them as your partners, not your adversaries, data turns into direction and analytics evolve into strategy.

New-gen marketers should also know that they should no longer fighting the algorithm, but feeding it the right signals - authenticity, engagement, and consistency. Whether it’s Google’s ranking logic, TikTok’s “For You” magic, or Meta’s engagement web, the real question isn’t “How do I beat it?” but “How do I work with it?”

Remember this 3 principles :

• Create for people, optimize for algorithms,

• Watch patterns, not platforms. Algorithms evolve, your strategy should too,

• Use data as intuition’s best friend. Let analytics shape creativity, not replace it.

The marketers of tomorrow won’t chase trends, they’ll understand systems.

Here's a simple example : 

The following shows how algorithms, data, and marketing tie together,  something new-gen marketers can see, analyze, and learn from.

Below is a sample dataset and Python snippet showing how marketers can use meta-data and algorithms to understand which content performs best on a website or social platform.

Another Example Algorithm (Python)

Let’s simulate a simple engagement score algorithm, how marketers could rank their posts by performance using weighted engagement.

What this does:

• Assigns weights (likes 30%, shares 40%, comments 30%),

• Multiplies total engagement by conversion rate, and

• Ranks which platform’s content gives the best return

Why New Age Marketers Should Love This

• It mixes creativity with data, storytelling backed by analytics,

• Shows how algorithms learn from engagement signals (just like social media platforms do), and

• Teaches marketers to interpret trends, not just follow them.

Another simple example : 

Run a small simulation in Python where I ranked content performance across social platforms using a weighted engagement algorithm:

engagement_score = (likes*0.3 + shares*0.4 + comments*0.3) * conversion_rate

Result?

TikTok and YouTube rise into a comfortable position - not just because of virality, but because they converted engagement into real outcomes.

Remember :

The future of marketing belongs to those who can bridge creativity and computation - storytellers who speak in both emotion and metrics. Algorithms will continue to evolve, but their purpose remains the same: to amplify what truly connects people.

So instead of asking, 

“How do I beat the algorithm?”, 

the real question should be, 

“How do I make the algorithm work with me?”

After all, the smartest marketers don’t fight the system - they understand it.

The Future Is Now: Why Agentic AI is the Sophisticated Tech to Watch in 2025 - Overview by Nik Zafri

At this moment in time, as I speak, one of the most compelling and impactful technologies emerging is Agentic Artificial Intelligence (AAI)

Agentic AI refers to systems that go beyond being passive “assistants” or co-pilots. These are intelligent agents capable of making decisions and taking actions with minimal human oversight.

1) SO, WHAT'S THE FUSS?

According to Gartner’s Top Technology Trends for 2025, agentic AI is ranked among the top transformative tech themes. 

The transition from “AI as co-pilot” to “AI as agent” signals a shift in how businesses and societies will work and compete. 

It touches multiple domains - automation, robotics, data, decision-making, human-machine collaboration making it highly strategic.

2) WHAT DOES IT UNLOCK?

• Efficiency and productivity: Agents can handle complex, dynamic tasks that go beyond scripted chatbots or rule-based automation,

• Innovation: New business models, service models and value chains emerge when intelligent agents act autonomously,

• Competitive Advantage: Early adopters will likely differentiate by how they embed agentic AI into workflows, products, services, and

• Ethical and Strategic Importance: Governance, trust, transparency and human oversight become critical as autonomy increases.

3) APPLICATION

• Operations : intelligent monitoring agents that learn, adapt and act in real-time,

• Customer Interaction: agents that proactively engage, personalize and even negotiate or transact on behalf of humans.  So no more struggling with traditional bots as they will be improved into AAI into new generation of autonomous digital agents,

• Strategic Decision Making: agents that simulate scenarios, propose actions, sometimes execute them under set controls, and

• Governance and Risk: embedding oversight about how agents behave, decisions they make, how humans remain in the loop.

Credit : Simform

4) QUICK CALL TO ACTION 

If you’re in leadership, strategy or innovation roles, now is the time to ask 4 important questions possibly will determine the future heading:

• How will agentic AI change our business model?
• What tasks or workflows could benefit from intelligent agents?
• What are the governance, trust and risk implications of deploying such agents? 
• How do we build competency now in data, algorithms, interfaces, human-agent collaboration?

5) CONCLUSION (?) - for now but I suppose more to come

In short, while many technologies vie for the “most sophisticated” label, agentic AI stands out in 2025 because it marks a turn from automation to autonomy, from assistance to agency. It isn’t just another “tool”, it’s a foundational shift.

If you’re thinking about what tech to invest in, explore, pilot or integrate this year and beyond, make agentic AI one of your top bets.

WANT TO INVEST IN BURSA? HUMBLE GUIDE BY NIK ZAFRI

Disclaimer : I am not a share expert and I gave up my license a long time ago. What I’m sharing here is purely based on my personal experience and observation. It may not suit everyone’s risk appetite or investment goals, so please treat this only as an unqualified personal guide, not professional financial advice. Always do your own research or consult a licensed investment adviser before making decisions.

Before investing a single sen, get familiar with how the stock market works.

Bursa Malaysia is the main stock exchange in Malaysia. It’s where public companies list their shares, and investors buy/sell them.

1) When you buy share

It means that you own a small part of that company. You can profit in two ways:

• Capital gain : buying low and selling high,
• Dividends : regular payments from the company’s profits (many Malaysian companies are good dividend payers).

2) Open a CDS and Trading Account

a) To invest, you must have:

• Central Depository System (CDS) Account (managed by Bursa Malaysia),
• Trading Account (with a stockbroker or bank)

b) How to open:

Choose a broker (examples: Maybank , CIMB , RHB, Hong Leong Bank Berhad , or online platforms like Rakuten Trade  or M+ Online),

• Submit your IC and supporting documents,
• Fund your trading account (some start as low as RM100)

Rakuten Trade and MIDF Invest are good for beginners - based on my own experience, they’re user-friendly and low-cost.

3) Learn the Different Types of Stocks

Generally, Malaysian stocks can be grouped into:

• Blue Chips: Big, stable companies (e.g. Maybank, PETRONAS Chemicals Group Berhad (PCG), Tenaga Nasional Berhad ) – lower risk, steady dividends.
• Growth Stocks: Smaller or mid-sized companies with potential to grow fast (e.g. tech, healthcare) – higher risk, higher reward.
• Dividend Stocks: Companies that consistently pay dividends (e.g. REITs, utilities, telcos).
• Speculative/Penny Stocks: Cheap, volatile, high risk - avoid until you have experience.

4) Study Before You Buy

Wise investors look at both fundamental and technical factors.

4.1 Fundamental analysis : Earnings per share (EPS), Price-to-earnings ratio (P/E), Dividend yield, company management and business model, Industry trends

4.2 Technical analysis: Price charts (candlesticks), support and resistance, volume trends.

For beginners, focus more on fundamentals first! Learn to value a business, not just its share price.

5) Build a Small, Safe Portfolio

Start small : say RM500–RM1,000 per month.

This way, you’re not putting all your eggs in one basket.

6) Be Patient and Think Long-Term

Stock investing is not gambling.

The “wise choice” is:

• Investing in strong companies with good track records.
• Holding long enough for compounding to work.
• Reinvesting dividends.

Avoiding panic selling when the market dips.

You may not get rich overnight, but in 5–10 years, consistent and disciplined investing can grow your wealth significantly.

7.0 Keep Learning

Here are some tips and recommended resources:

• Bursa Academy (free online learning by Bursa Malaysia),
• InvestSmart by SC Malaysia

Some of the books that I've read:

• The Intelligent Investor (Benjamin Graham)
• One Up on Wall Street (Peter Lynch)

8.0 “Wise” Start

Let’s say you invest RM1,000 in Maybank at RM8.80 per share.

Annual dividend yield ≈ 6% → RM60 a year. If price rises to RM9.50, you gain ~8% in capital. Total gain ≈ 14% = RM140 (Yes, it's not big, but it's steady and definitely low risk).

Do that every month, and in 5 years you’ll have built a portfolio worth many thousands even more with reinvested dividends.

9.0 SIMULATED PORTFOLIO

Here's an example of simulated portfolio with low risk and expected annual return, based on your monthly budget and risk appetite

Let's assume RM1,000/month, moderate risk, and short-term (1–2 years).

That means your goal is to make steady gains without too much exposure to volatility - something practical and realistic for Bursa Malaysia .

Here’s a smart short-term portfolio simulation designed around those parameters.

9.1 Bursa Malaysia Stock Investment Plan (Moderate, Short-Term)

Monthly Investment = RM1,000/month. Time Frame = 12–24 months

a) Portfolio Allocation

b) Expected Performance (Estimates for 1–2 Years)

This may sound modest, but for short-term investing, it’s realistic and protects your capital while letting you learn market behaviour.

10.0 Strategy and Tips

• Use Dollar-Cost Averaging (DCA):

Invest RM1,000 every month regardless of price. This smooths out volatility.

• Monitor Quarterly Results:

Keep an eye on companies’ QRs (Quarterly Reports) - if profits drop for 2 straight quarters, reconsider holding.

• Set a Profit Target:

Aim to sell if a stock rises 10–15% within 6–12 months. Don’t get greedy - short-term means locking in profits wisely.

• Reinvest Dividends:

Even short-term, reinvesting dividends increases compounding effect.

• Avoid Chasing Hype:

Stay away from “goreng” or speculative counters unless you can afford the loss. Stick with sound fundamentals.

Let’s say you start with:

RM400 → Maybank (RM8.80/share)

RM250 → IGB REIT (RM1.80/share)

RM250 → Inari (RM3.00/share)

RM100 → kept as cash

After one year:

Maybank rises to RM9.30 (+6%) and pays 6% dividend → 12% total gain

IGB REIT pays 5% dividend, price stable → 5% gain

Inari rises 15% → 15% gain

Average total gain ≈ 10% (RM1,200 → RM1,320)

If reinvested monthly, your annual profit could reach RM800–RM1,000, not huge but safe and smart.

10.0 Your Simulated 12-Month Investment Roadmap

Here’s your 12-month Bursa Malaysia Stock Investment Roadmap - tailored for RM1,000/month, moderate risk, and a short-term horizon (1–2 years). 

(Total target investment: RM12,000)

This plan balances steady growth, dividend income, and learning experience without overexposing you to market risk.

a) Portfolio Mix at Year-End

b) Expected Return (Short-Term Estimate) 

c) Rebalancing and Exit Plan

• Rebalance every 6 months (or when a stock gains/loses >15%)
• Lock in profit when a counter exceeds +10–15%, then reinvest elsewhere.
• Cut loss if a company falls >10% and fundamentals worsen (check quarterly results).
• If market dips sharply but fundamentals remain intact → buy more (average down).

11.0 CONCLUSION

Investing in Bursa Malaysia can be both rewarding and educational when approached with patience, discipline, and a clear strategy. Even with a modest monthly commitment, wise investors can gradually build wealth through sound stock selection, consistent monitoring, and reinvestment of returns. While short-term profits are possible, the real value lies in understanding market behaviour and making informed choices rather than chasing quick gains.

Remember; as stated in the disclaimer ; this guide is not professional financial advice, but a reflection of personal experience. Every investor’s journey is unique, so always do your own research and invest only what you can afford to hold. The key is not to predict the market, but to prepare and participate in it wisely.

PM 101 CRITICAL PATH METHOD - NIK ZAFRI

The Critical Path Method (CPM) is a project scheduling technique used to identify the sequence of activities that determine the shortest possible duration to complete a project.

The Critical Path itself refers to the longest continuous chain of dependent activities from project start to finish.

Each activity on this path has zero float/slack, meaning any delay in these activities will directly delay the entire project.

Thus : The Critical Path is the backbone of the project timeline.

1.0 WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?

a. Time Control

It tells you the minimum completion time and helps the team prioritize work. Activities on the critical path must be closely monitored.

b. Resource Allocation

It helps planners allocate labour, equipment, and materials efficiently to critical activities first avoiding idle resources or bottlenecks.

c. Progress Tracking

It allows the project manager to know exactly which delays matter most — not all delays affect the overall completion date.

d. Decision-Making

In case of unforeseen issues (e.g., weather delays, material shortages), managers can quickly decide where to fast-track or crash the schedule to recover lost time.

e. Client and Contractor Communication

The critical path schedule provides a transparent, evidence-based tool for reporting progress, negotiating time extensions, or substantiating delay claims.

2.0. MISTAKES

a. No CPM - Depending Only on Bar Chart (Gantt Chart)

Many contractors rely solely on simple Gantt charts without logic links between activities.

You can’t identify dependencies or determine which tasks truly control the project completion.

This leads to poor coordination, unrealistic timelines, and misleading progress updates.

b. Incorrect Activity Sequencing

If the logic (predecessor-successor relationship) is wrong, the identified critical path will be inaccurate.

e.g. Installing formwork is shown as independent of rebar placement, this breaks the logical flow.

c. Unrealistic Durations

Setting durations without considering actual productivity, site conditions, or resource limits will distort the path.

The CPM might show a “fake” critical path that doesn’t match real-life constraints.

d. Ignoring Resource Constraints

A CPM schedule that ignores the availability of manpower, equipment, or materials gives a misleading view of feasibility.

e. CPM not updated

Failing to regularly update progress (weekly/monthly) means the CPM becomes obsolete. The project team loses sight of the real critical path as conditions change.

f. Too Many or Too Few Activities

Over-detailed CPMs become cumbersome, while oversimplified ones miss critical logic - both make tracking difficult.

g. Not Incorporated into the Master Work Program

Sometimes CPM is prepared separately and not aligned with the master work program or baseline schedule.

This results in inconsistent reporting, claim disputes, and confusion between stakeholders.

3.0 RISKS - WITH POOR CPM OR NO CPM AT ALL

• Inability to forecast completion date accurately.
• Increased risk of cost overruns and claims.
• Miscommunication between client, consultant, and contractor.
• Ineffective monitoring - site teams don’t know what to prioritize.
• Difficulty in granting or defending Extension of Time (EOT).
• Loss of credibility with the client and project financiers.

4.0 BEST PRACTICES

• Use CPM software (e.g., Primavera P6, MS Project) with correct logic links.
• Base the durations on historical productivity rates and resource availability.
• Update CPM regularly and review float changes.
• Align CPM with the Master Work Program (MWP).
• Conduct periodic schedule reviews with all stakeholders.
• Identify opportunities for fast-tracking or crashing early if delays arise.

5.0 EXAMPLES

Let me walk through a simplified example of how the Critical Path works in a construction sequence.

Project : Building a Simple Two-Storey Structure

How CPM Helps Here

The project manager now knows that Walls & Plastering (G) is a critical activity not Roof (F) or M & E (H). If delays occur in roof work, the project can still finish on time, but wall/plaster delay will push the completion date. Hence, site resources can be prioritized for critical path tasks to prevent overall delay.

Visual CPM Network Diagram

Below is a ready-to-use sample Master Work Program (MWP) for a small building project that includes CPM calculations, plus a revised schedule showing the effect of a delay and a footnote/legend explaining delay types and how to present them in the MWP.

• Baseline activity table (with ES, EF, LS, LF, float) - CPM forward/backward pass shown implicitly in the numbers.
• Baseline Critical Path.
• Revised schedule after a 4-day delay to a critical activity (showing how completion shifts).
• Footnotes - Legend explaining delay types, columns, and how to present delays/claims in the MWP.

Baseline Master Work Program (CPM included)

Assume day counting starts at Day 0 (project start). All arithmetic is shown as totals so you can verify calculations.

a) How these numbers were obtained (summary of forward/backward pass)

Forward pass (ES → EF)

ES of a node = max(EF of all predecessors).

e.g - ES(I) = max(EF(F), EF(G), EF(H)) = max(43, 46, 44) = 46 → EF(I) = ES(I) + 5 = 51.

Backward pass (LF → LS)

LF of a node = min(LS of all successors).

e.g. LF(E) = min(LS of F, G, H) = min(39, 36, 38) = 36 → LS(E) = LF(E) − 6 = 30.

Float = LS − ES (or LF − EF)

• Baseline Project Duration = EF(J) = 53 days.
• Baseline Critical Path (zero float activities):

A → B → C → D → E → G → I → J (total 53 days)

b) Revised work program (after the 4-day delay on G)

New project duration = 57 days. Delay = 4 days (equal to the G delay) because G was critical.

c) Footnote / Legend : showing delays and how to present them in the MWP

Columns used (and how to report)

• ES / EF : Early Start / Early Finish (forward pass).
• LS / LF : Late Start / Late Finish (backward pass).
• Float : LS − ES (slack). If float = 0 → critical.

Actual Start and Actual Finish (in your live MWP, add columns) - record real progress. Compare actual vs baseline.

d) Types of Delay (legend) - short definitions and examples relevant to construction

• Excusable, Non-Compensable Delay : Delay outside contractor’s control for which time extension may be granted but no money (e.g., unusually severe weather). Mark as E-NC.

• Excusable, Compensable Delay : Delay caused by the employer/client (e.g., late variations/instructions, late approvals, late design) - contractor gets EOT and additional cost (E-C).

• Non-Excusable Delay : Contractor’s fault (e.g., poor planning, labour shortage due to contractor’s hiring failure) : contractor liable for EOT denial and possible liquidated damages (NE).

• Concurrent Delay : Two or more delays happening at the same time where at least one is employer’s and one contractor’s; entitlement is complex and often needs separate forensic analysis (CONC).

• Acceleration/Owner-Directed Acceleration - Owner asks contractor to compress schedule; if owner-directed, costs may be compensable (ACC).

e) How to show delays in the MWP (recommended columns and notes)

• Baseline ES/EF : original planned.
• Current Forecast ES/EF : recalculated every update cycle (weekly/bi-weekly).
• Actual Start/Actual Finish : daily/weekly progress entries.
• Variance (days) - Current Forecast EF(J) − Baseline EF(J). (Shows total delay)

f) Delay Type : use legend codes (E-NC, E-C, NE, CONC).

i) Supporting Docs : RFI no., delivery note, weather log, employer instruction no., photos, site daily logs. Always attach proof for claims.

ii) Color / formatting convention (suggested):

• Red row = activity on the current critical path.
• Yellow cell = activity experiencing a delay.

Column for “Claim / EOT requested” with date and amount (if applicable).

g) Practical tips for your MWP + CPM on construction projects

• Baseline and Updates: Keep a clear baseline schedule (approved) and publish regular updates (weekly/fortnightly). Each update must include actual start/finish, and a recalculated CPM (forward/backward pass).

• Resource-aware CPM: CPM assumes unlimited resources; if your site is resource-constrained, overlay a resource-levelling run or show resource conflicts separately.

• Maintain Audit Trail: For every delay mark, attach contemporaneous evidence: delivery tickets, RFIs, site weather logs, photos, signatures. This is essential for EOT or claims.
  
  
• Identify Recovery Options Early: If a critical activity is delayed, evaluate crashing (add labour/equipment) or fast-tracking where technically safe - capture cost vs time trade-off.

• Watch for Hidden Critical Paths: Frequent logic checks - wrong links create wrong critical path. Keep activities at an appropriate level of detail (not too coarse, not too granular).

• Be explicit about calendars: Use the same work calendar (public holidays, weekends) when computing durations and ES/LS dates.

6.0 CONCLUSION

In construction, time is not just money, it’s control, credibility, and coordination. The Critical Path Method (CPM) remains the backbone of effective project scheduling because it identifies where time truly matters. Through a well-prepared CPM-based Master Work Program, project teams can visualize the entire construction process, anticipate bottlenecks, and make informed decisions when challenges arise.

Conversely, projects without a proper CPM analysis often fall prey to confusion, miscommunication, and costly delays. Without understanding which activities drive the completion date, both contractors and clients risk losing grip over schedule integrity, resource planning, and even contractual entitlements such as Extension of Time (EOT).

Ultimately, mastering the CPM is not just about software proficiency - it’s about discipline, foresight, and accountability. It empowers project stakeholders to act on facts rather than assumptions, ensuring that every day on site contributes toward successful, timely delivery.